Sri Lanka was experiencing heavy rainfall recently, a phenomenon, according to the Buddhist belief, that coincides with the month of Il, often referred to as the rainy month. The inter-monsoon session receives heavy rain in November, which is the Il month. Following the Il, Sri Lankans embrace the cold Unduvap month. Though it is a moderately cold month, historically it is referred to as the month that warmed up the entire island. The reason being that this is the month in which the sacred sapling of Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi arrived in Sri Lanka with Sangamitta Theri. Unduvap, the day of the full moon, is the last Poya of the year. Many cultural turning points coincided with the arrival of Sanghamitta Theri on the Unduvap Poya. During the reign of King Devanampiyathissa, the Mauryan king, Ashoka undertook a splendid mission that laid the foundation of a diplomatic relation that has lasted centuries. The Indian emperor Ashoka played a pivotal role in propagating the great Dhamma to neighboring countries. As a part of his mission, he considered one of the most important contingents to be Thambapanni, now known as Sri Lanka. He sent his ordained son Arahath Mahinda and daughter Sangamitta Theri to Sri Lanka to introduce Buddhism to the island nation. Apart from the Buddhist Dhamma, the arrival of Sangamiththa Theri also brought a lot of other cultural norms and nuances that got established across the island. She was accompanied by ten other Bhikkhunis and a contingent of highly skilled craftsmen from India. These craftsmen and artists were instrumental in the development of the Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka. Their skills involved drawing, crafting, landscaping, architecture carpentry, and rock carvings, and some were experts in health sciences and methods. Historians refer to this phase of emergence of Buddhism as the Maha Bodhi culture. Along with the Maha Bodhi culture, literature, arts, and crafts also developed in the region. The entourage that accompanied the Sangamitta Theri was quite diverse and included people of various castes, including carpenters, builders, artists, and many others. A lot of these skills and crafts were then adopted by the locals resulting in the building of extraordinary cultural artifacts including the Ruwanweli Maha Seya, the Great Stupa. Buildings, particularly palaces and temple paintings, and woodcraft were developed as a result of this cultural dissemination. It has added tremendously to the Sri Lanka’s great cultural heritage. Princess Anula was the first to be ordained in Lanka as a Bhikkhuni. Sanghamitta Theri established the Meheni Sasana (Buddhist nuns) that lasted for about 1000 years in Sri Lanka. It is often considered to be the revolutionary movement that led to the liberation of women in the region. Although things have changed over time and women are no more allowed to go to the mound or Uda Maluva (upper terrace) where the Bodhi tree stands, it is still of high cultural significance that the woman who came from India brought with them a message of synergy and gender equality. The credit especially goes to Sangamitta who had brought the message of equal rights for women to Sri Lanka, a cultural gift from India. Sanghamitta Theri did not conclude her mission by planting the sacred Bo Sapling in the picturesque Mahamevuna Park. After ordaining Queen Anula Devi, five hundred women devotees from all levels of society joined the Bhikkuni order along with her. It is not widely known that those Bhikkunis had extensive literary skills, especially in Pali language that turned out to be instrumental in the promotion of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Interestingly, around that time, Mahinda Thera, the greatest communicator of all time, was preaching in Sinhala, while most of the facts on Dhamma were in Pali, the language used by including Sanghamitta Theri and her delegation. At that time Pali was not widely popular. Bhikkunis who were in their quest to learn Dhamma had to learn Pali as an act of great courage and perseverance. This courage is what ultimately helped them develop their linguistic skills in Pali and understand the Dhamma. They were fortunate to interact with eminent scholars in the process. The prime example of their Pali skills is reflected in the Deepavamsa, which is the first Pali chronicle in the island’s history. It was compiled by a group of Bhikkhunis in the 4th century AD. This in fact has been endorsed by scholars, Professor G.P. Malalasekera, Sirima Kiribamuna, and Wilhelm Geiger. Dipavamsa, mostly in Pali verses, was written to propagate Buddha’s teachings. It signifies the impact of Buddhism on Sri Lanka and the role played by the Indian mission of Sangamitta on the literacy level of women, who were the first to master the Pali language, considered to be elite at that time. Dipavamsa was a collective work, produced by a generation of Bhikkunis over some time and also served as the main source of information for literature that were developed later. There is another significant achievement in the spread of Buddhism that can be attributed to these Bhikkunis. The Lankan ship that sailed in 426 AD across the sea to reach China, bearing the message of Dhamma, was captained by Nandi and eleven Bhikkunis were aboard. The delegation was led by Dayanara Thisarana Theri and they ordained over 300 bhikkhunis in Nanking – the capital of the Sung Dynasty. Later Chandramali Theri led the second group to Tibet to spread Buddhism in 429 AD. The contingent that arrived with Sangamitta was also critical in enhancing agriculture in this country. The agricultural economy flourished on the island with new cultivation methods and the building of large tanks with eco-friendly rainwater harvesting techniques. Emperor Ashoka had the vision of liberation, not only for his territory but for neighboring nations as well. He made the big sacrifice of sending his son and daughter on this noble mission to Sri Lanka. It was our good fortune that Sri Lanka was the first country to which such a mission was undertaken. From such an early time, India has played…

Śāntideva was an 8th-century CE Indian philosopher, Buddhist monk, poet and scholar at the erstwhile Nalanda University. The Tibetan historians Butön and Taranātha tell us that Śāntideva was a Brahmin prince, the son of the King Kalyanavarman and Queen Vajrayogini from Saurāṣṭra; a western coastal region that now forms part of the Indian state of Gujarat. He went by the name Shantivarman. He renounced the princely life and became a monastic. He was an adherent of the Madhyamaka philosophy and is also considered to be one of the 84 mahasiddhas. Legends say at the age of six, he met with a yogi from whom he received his first initiation and teachings on the practice of Manjushri. It is said that on the eve of his enthronement, Manjushri and Arya Tara appeared to him in his dreams. When he awoke, he saw his impending kingship as a poisonous tree and hastily fled the kingdom. He is believed to have received teachings directly from Arya Manjushri and also carried with a wooden sword which symbolized the wisdom sword of Manjushri. He travelled to the Kingdom of Pancamasimha and was appointed by the king as a minister. During his tenure, he introduced the skill of various crafts and urged the King to rule his kingdom always in accordance with the Dharma and suggested twenty Dharma Foundations be established. Then Śāntideva left for the great Nalanda University. At Nalanda, he received ordination of a monk from the Abbot Jayadeva and was given the name Śāntideva. Though there, he came to be known as a Bhu-Su-Ku, a kind of Sanskrit acronym derived from words meaning “eat”, “sleep”, and “defecate” as that was all anyone had seen him do. While none knew he was receiving teachings from Manjushri and realized all important points of both Sutra and Tantra. In an attempt to encourage their apparently lazy student to return to his proper path, some of the monks in authority at Nālandā decided to assign him to recite a text at an upcoming religious festival; and, just to humiliate him even more, built him an elaborate throne from which to speak. On the day of the festival, Śāntideva ascended the throne and asked the audience whether they would like to hear something old or something new; or in other words, whether he should recite something he had memorized, or an original composition of his own Bodhicaryāvatāra. During the recitation, while seated in meditation posture, the master began to levitate above the throne. At the recitation of verse 34 of Chapter 9, he levitated in the air and vanished. Later those who possessed clairaudience noted down the remaining chapters of which two versions came up; one had seven hundred stanzas (Pandits of Kashmir) while some had a thousand (Magadha, Central India) or more. Later Acharya Santideva confirmed that the correct version corresponded to what the scholars of Magadha had produced. Works of Santideva Two major works are unanimously attributed to Śāntideva:  Bodhicaryāvatāra (A Guide to a Bodhisattvas Way of Life) written c. 700 AD in Sanskrit, the most widely read philosophical poem, and Śikṣā–samuccaya a valuable and intellectually rich anthology of quotations from the Mahāyāna sūtras with commentary by Śāntideva. Two major versions of Bodhicaryāvatāra exist, one comprising thousand verses that was regarded as canonical in Tibet (see Butön 2013: 259). The Bodhicaryāvatāra has been translated into several modern languages, including Chinese, Danish, Dutch, English, German, Hindi, Newari, and Spanish, for a total of at least twenty-seven contemporary translations (as surveyed by Gómez 1999: 4–5). It has ten chapters dedicated to the development of bodhicitta (the mind of enlightenment) through the practice of the six perfections (Skt.Pāramitās). Chapters 1-3 comprises of the practice of Perfection of Generosity; Chapters 4-5 is on Perfection of Ethical Discipline; Chapter 6 is on Perfection of Patience; Chapter 7 is on Perfection of Enthusiasm; Chapter 8 is on Perfection of Meditative Concentration; and Chapter 9 is on Perfection of Wisdom. Śikṣā-samuccaya contains a number of passages of ethical and philosophical interest in Śāntideva’s own voice, as well as numerous beautiful and moving poems and a wide variety of scriptural materials drawn from over a hundred sūtras. Textual scholars have often relied on Śikṣā-samuccaya as a crucial source, as it preserves passages in Sanskrit from dozens of sūtras that have been lost in their original language. It also contains twenty-seven “root verses” that express important themes of the book. Bodhicaryāvatāra is a widely taught and studied by South Asian Buddhists community. The 14th Dalai Lama has been teaching this text to a wide audience of all Buddhist communities at their request. It is one of the treasures of the Indian wisdom that is pertinent in today’s modern world. Acharya Santideva is one of the greatest masters of the Indian sub-continent whose work is still influencing millions of Buddhist across the globe.      

Submitted by Dr. Nilza Wangmo India and Mongolia share warm and cordial bilateral relations with the year 2022 marking the 67th anniversary of diplomatic ties between India and Mongolia. The bilateral relationship was upgraded to a Strategic Partnership during the historic visit of Prime Minister in 2015. The 3 Ds – Democracy, Dharma and Development Partnership have emerged as the pillars of India Mongolia relationship. Historically, the two nations have connected through Buddhism that has developed, nurtured and promoted the friendship and spiritual bond. Buddhism came to Mongolia in three phases. The first phase began during the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka in third century BCE. Ashoka had extended his Buddhist influence northward all the way to the city of Khotan. Khotan was the westernmost region of Mongolia from where Buddhism gradually spread eastward to the Mongolian Gobi kingdoms along the Silk Route. In 1206 CE under the ruler Genghis Khan, a united Mongolian state of nomadic tribes was formed, and his successors controlled a vast empire that included much of China, Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. During this the second phase of Buddhism began when Genghis Khan’s grandson Emperor Kublai Khan adopted Tibetan Buddhism and promoted Tibetan Guru Chogyal Pakpa/ Phagpa lama (known to Mongols today as Pakpa Lama). An easy form of the Tibetan script for use in all territories took place under his rule. This script, known as the Pakyig, continued as the script of choice by the Mongol emperors who came thereafter, and was in common use in Mongol Buddhism. The Mongolian Khans of Yuan dynasty adopted Tibetan Buddhism over other religions and honoured Skya-pa lamas as their supreme religious instructor. The third phase referred as The Origins of Dharma in Mongolia, refers to the Yellow Hat School Movement that was inspired by the Third Dalai Lama’s travels in the Mongol regions from 1578 under the patronage of Altan Khan. Interestingly, the Dalai Lama was not known by the name “Dalai” at the time rather was known as Jey Tamchey Khyenpa, or “The Omniscient Master.” The Third carried the ordination name of Sonam Gyatso. When he arrived in Hohhot, the then southern capital of Mongolia, Altan Khan translated the “Gyatso” part of his name into Mongolian. Thus Gyatso became Dalai, and Jey Tamchey Khyenpa became “Dalai Lama Dorjechang.” With the collapse and split of the Mongol empire, northern Mongolia was colonized by Qing (Manchu) China from 1691 onwards. With the fall of the Qing in 1911, control of Mongolia lay in the hands of Bogd Gegeen (or Javzandamba) or Bogd Khan (Mongolia’s religious leader) but only autonomy under China’s suzerainty was achieved. He became the Head of State and declared Mongolia’s independence. He is ranked third in the ecclesiastical hierarchy after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, From 1919, nationalist revolutionaries, with Soviet assistance, drove out Chinese troops attempting to reoccupy Mongolia, and in 1921 they expelled the invading White Russian cavalry. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed in November 1924, and the Mongolian capital, centred on the main monastery of the Bogd Gegeen was renamed Ulaanbaatar (“Red Hero”). During the 1930s the ruling revolutionary party, which espoused atheism, destroyed or closed monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, induced large numbers of monks (lamas) to renounce religious life, and killed those who resisted. Robert Rupen reports that in the 1920s there were over 112,000 Mongolian Buddhist monks, representing more than 13% of Mongolia’s overall population. By the 1940s, nearly every monk was either dead or had apostatized. The end of one-party rule in 1990 allowed for the popular resurgence of Tibetan Buddhism, the rebuilding of ruined monasteries and temples, and the rebirth of the religious vocation. The contemporary phase of Buddhism in Mongolia that built strong ties between India and Mongolia was with the 19th Kushok Bakula Rinpoche, also known as Ngawang Lobzang Thupstan Chognor, a Buddhist Lama from Ladakh who was designated as Ambassador of India to Mongolia in 1990 until 2000. He was recognized by the 13th Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of Bakula Arhat, one of the 16 Arhats who, as per legend, were direct disciples of Gautama Buddha. During his stay in Mongolia he spread Buddha’s teaching extensively among the locals in Mongolia. During this period, Kushok Bakula also reinforced Buddhism in different autonomous Republics of Russia which are located close to the Mongolian border, such as Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva. In August 1993, under his initiative the Government of India brought the Holy Buddha Relics at National Museum in New Delhi to Ulaanbaatar for an exposition. A recipient of Padma Bhushan in 1988, the late Bakula Rinpoche remains the most prominent Buddhist leader in independent India. However, it was his contribution to the revival of Buddhism in Mongolia as an Indian diplomat following the collapse of the Soviet Union that genuinely stands out. President of Mongolia P. Ochirbat (1992-97) stated, “Bakula Rinpoche was indeed a statesman, a diplomat and a Buddhist clergy who carved out his niche in the history of Mongolia. Ambassador Rinpoche had recognized the historical necessity of developing Mongolia’s national culture to restore the glory of Buddhism, an inseparable part of its cultural heritage”. On the auspicious occasion of the Buddha Purnima being observed in Mongolia on 14 June 2022, an 11-day exposition of the sacred Buddha Relics (Piprahwa relics) for the second time will take place in Mongolia. A  25-member delegation led by Indian Union Minister for Law and Justice, Shri Kiren Rijiju will take the Holy Buddha Relics will leave for Mongolia by a special Indian Air Force Aircraft. The Holy Buddha Relics will be displayed at the Batsagaan Temple within the premises of the Ganden Monastery.  Today, Buddhism has been promoted by cultural and literary contacts between the people of India and Mongolia. This long-standing friendship between the two nations grounded on the teachings of the Buddha will grow stronger into the future.

Introduction The “aṭṭhakathā” is an exegetical work on Pali Canonical texts. In Sanskrit literature, the same feature is called “bhāṣya”. Its aim is to elaborate the meanings of the Buddhist teachings in the Canon. There were two reasons for the compilation of commentaries on the Pali text. The first of these, as recorded in the Sutra, is that some of the teachings promulgated by the Buddha are incomprehensible. The second is the inconsistency related to people’s skill in understanding the Dhamma. As a result, commentaries were essential to assist in understanding the original teachings of Pali literature.The Pali language originated in Magadha with the name Magadhi (Magadha + e = Magadhi). Another dialect similar to Magadhi used by Jain Mahavira is Ardha Magadhi. At the time of the Buddha, the Pali language called Suddha Magadhi was called Pure Language (nomix with any other language). Also, King Ashoka used a language similar to Pali. According to the Samantapasadika Vinaya Atakatha (Commentary on Vinayapitaka), the Pali language came to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century AD with Mahamahinda Thero.Scholars have determined that this is the starting point where Pali was introduced to Sri Lanka. The development of Pali to international language standards can be described in two areas namely grammatical development and literary development. There are two grammar traditions introduced by Sri Lankan scholars namely Kachchayana and Moggallayana traditions. Mahakacchayana and Maharupasidhi were written for the Kachchayana tradition and Mahamoggallayana book for the Moggallayana tradition. These traditions were very helpful in the development of Pali language The Literal development is huge when we consider it. There are many books written in Pali language. They can be explained as canon, commentaries, sub-commentaries, anthologies or manuals, chronicles and various other literary works. Canonical literature is the name given to the Tripitaka texts. Commentary is an allegorical treatise that explains difficult points in canonical texts. There are many commentaries like Sumangalavilasini, Papanchasudani, Sarathappakasini, Manorathapurani etc. The Upa-Commentary is a confusing book that explained the difficult points of the commentaries, some of which are Vajirabuddhitika, Vimativinodhaneetika, etc. A handbook can be described as a concise, yet comprehensive collection of information on a subject, especially a book or other publication such as Abhidhammattasangha, Suttasangha, Namarupasamuchchaya etc. Annals can be described as a true written record of important historical events such as Mahavamsa, Deepavansa, Bodhivamsa etc. in the order in which they happened. The Rise of Pali in Sri Lanka & India The Pali language is evocative. It has a lyrical rhythm. In singing, Lalithya is sajjati in tone, and Karnarasayana raises the sound. The Pali language has been preserved in several Theravada Buddhist countries, especially when it is being recited by the monks so that the meaning is spiced up, and is kept alive by the Buddhist scholars, monks, and devotees. Thus, Pali has become the medium of Theravada Buddhism. When the Aryan-speaking peoples migrated to northern India around 2000 BC, they are thought to have brought many varieties of the language with them. In the course of time, some of these sub-languages developed unique literary forms along with grammar. Of these, the most important dialect was Sanskrit. Although Pali is widely accepted as an ancient language, no epigraphic or textual evidence survives from the early period. The earliest Pali samples discovered are inscriptions believed to date from the fifth to eighth centuries, and were found in mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in central Siam and Lower Burma. These inscriptions usually consist of short excerpts from the Pali canon and non-canonical texts, as well as multiple examples of Yedharma utati stanzas. Surprisingly, the oldest Pali text dating back to the 9th century was found in Nepal. It is in the shape of four palm leaves, including a part of chullavagga written in a transitional script derived from the Gupta script. The oldest manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date from the 13th to the 15th century, and only a few instances have survived. Very few manuscripts survive more than 400 years and complete copies of the four sects are known only in 17th and later century specimens. The Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, which emerged shortly after the Buddha’s parinirvana, began to use Sanskrit, the classical language of India, to propagate the Buddha’s teachings. After that, an alternative Sanskrit dialect called “Buddhist Sanskrit” came into use. In real time, Pali language also came to be known as the “Language of the Philosophy of Mankind”. This is because, before the emergence of the Western Enlightenment tradition, it was a vast literature on the subject of religion and the medium of expression of philosophical thought throughout the world. The Pali language is the medium in which the legend or Tripitaka on the teachings of Theravada Buddhism is presented. The legal system for the education of monks is presented in the Vinaya Pitaka, the main collection of Buddha’s teachings in the Sutra Pitaka, and the most profound psychological dharma mass in the Abhidharma Pitaka. It is also important to consider the spread of the Pali language which has been accelerated over time. As mutual commercial relations and message exchange strategies developed, the use of Pali language also spread as Buddhist monks and envoys proliferated throughout the respective geographical areas. As it was, Pali became the “universal language” of Buddhist countries in South and Southeast Asia for well over a thousand years. Later, each country developed its own Pali literature and history. The language incorporates regional variants, making it difficult to assign to a specific location. Like the Buddhists, the Jains deviated from Sanskrit and instead used Arthamagadhi to write their books. However, most Buddhist treatises in North India and South Asia, except for the peninsula, were written in Sanskrit in the second century. It is unclear what prompted the Buddhists to accept Sanskrit after half a millennium. Although Pali survived in other parts of the world until the eighteenth century, it died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century. Pali is now primarily learned…