History – Page 3 – Indo-Buddhist Heritage Forum

Buddhist Philosophers and Their Contributions to Buddhism

Buddhist philosophy is a multifaceted tradition with numerous philosophers who have significantly shaped its development over centuries. Here is an extended list of influential Buddhist philosophers and a brief overview of their contributions and philosophies. 1. Gautama Buddha (c. 563/480 – c. 483/400 BCE) Philosophy: Foundational Teachings of BuddhismContributions: The Buddha’s teachings form the core of all Buddhist philosophy. He articulated the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the concept of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda). His teachings emphasize the cessation of suffering (dukkha) through ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom. Read More about Buddha here 2. Nagarjuna (2nd Century CE) Philosophy: Madhyamaka (Middle Way)Contributions: Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamaka school, emphasizing the concept of śūnyatā (emptiness) and the middle way between nihilism and eternalism. His “Mūlamadhyamakakārikā” (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way) is a seminal text in Mahāyāna Buddhism. 3. Aryadeva (3rd Century CE) Philosophy: MadhyamakaContributions: Aryadeva, a disciple of Nagarjuna, wrote the “Catuḥśataka” (Four Hundred Verses), addressing metaphysical and ethical issues and refining the arguments for emptiness. 4. Asanga (4th Century CE) Philosophy: Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda)Contributions: Asanga, along with Vasubandhu, founded the Yogācāra school, focusing on the role of consciousness in the creation of experience. His works include the “Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra” and the “Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra.” 5. Vasubandhu (4th-5th Century CE) Philosophy: Yogācāra, AbhidharmaContributions: Vasubandhu contributed to both Yogācāra and Abhidharma traditions. His “Abhidharmakośa” is a comprehensive treatise on Abhidharma, and his Yogācāra works include the “Trisvabhāvanirdeśa” and “Viṃśatikā.” 6. Dignāga (5th-6th Century CE) Philosophy: Buddhist Logic and EpistemologyContributions: Dignāga founded the school of Buddhist logic and epistemology. His works, such as “Pramāṇasamuccaya,” laid the groundwork for later developments in Buddhist logic, focusing on perception and inference as valid means of knowledge. 7. Dharmakīrti (7th Century CE) Philosophy: Buddhist Epistemology and LogicContributions: Dharmakīrti systematized Buddhist logic and epistemology in works like “Pramāṇavārttika.” He analyzed perception, inference, and the nature of reality, influencing both Buddhist and non-Buddhist traditions. 8. Candrakīrti (7th Century CE) Philosophy: Prāsaṅgika-MadhyamakaContributions: Candrakīrti is a key figure in the Prāsaṅgika sub-school of Madhyamaka. His commentaries, especially the “Prasannapadā,” provide detailed expositions of Madhyamaka philosophy, emphasizing a dialectical method of refuting inherent existence. 9. Śāntideva (8th Century CE) Philosophy: Madhyamaka, EthicsContributions: Śāntideva’s “Bodhicaryāvatāra” (Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life) is a classic text on the path of the bodhisattva, blending Madhyamaka philosophy with practical ethical guidance and meditation techniques. 10. Kamalaśīla (8th Century CE) Philosophy: Yogācāra-Madhyamaka SynthesisContributions: Kamalaśīla synthesized Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophies in his “Bhāvanākrama” texts, outlining a comprehensive path of meditation. His works influenced Tibetan Buddhism, especially regarding enlightenment and meditation. 11. Śāntarakṣita (8th Century CE) Philosophy: Yogācāra-Madhyamaka SynthesisContributions: Śāntarakṣita played a pivotal role in bringing Buddhism to Tibet. His works, including the “Tattvasaṅgraha,” integrate Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophies and engage with non-Buddhist Indian philosophies. 12. Atisha (982-1054 CE) Philosophy: Lamrim (Stages of the Path)Contributions: Atisha’s “Bodhipathapradīpa” (Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment) systematized the Lamrim tradition, outlining a graduated path to enlightenment. His work significantly influenced the development of Tibetan Buddhism. 13. Tsongkhapa (1357-1419 CE) Philosophy: Gelug, Prāsaṅgika-MadhyamakaContributions: Tsongkhapa founded the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and emphasized the Prāsaṅgika interpretation of Madhyamaka. His works, such as the “Lamrim Chenmo” (Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path), are central to Gelugpa thought. 14. Dōgen (1200-1253 CE) Philosophy: Sōtō ZenContributions: Dōgen founded the Sōtō school of Zen Buddhism in Japan. His writings, especially the “Shōbōgenzō” (Treasury of the True Dharma Eye), emphasize zazen (seated meditation) and the realization of enlightenment in everyday activities. 15. Hakuin Ekaku (1686-1769 CE) Philosophy: Rinzai ZenContributions: Hakuin revitalized the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism in Japan. His emphasis on kōan practice and vigorous training methods significantly influenced the Rinzai tradition, stressing direct realization and experiential wisdom. Conclusion The contributions of these philosophers have profoundly shaped Buddhist thought, practice, and its evolution across different cultures and historical periods. Each philosopher’s unique insights and teachings continue to inspire practitioners and scholars, ensuring the enduring relevance and adaptability of Buddhist philosophy. Read about the Modern Buddhist Philosophers like Dr. B.R Ambedkar here.

Most asked questions on Buddhism

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Is Buddha Chinese or Indian? Buddha, also known as Siddhartha Gautama, was an Indian spiritual leader and the founder of Buddhism. He was born in Lumbini, which is currently in modern-day Nepal, around the 5th to 4th century BCE. Although Buddhism spread to many parts of Asia, including China, where it became a major religion, Buddha himself was an Indian and spent most of his life in the region corresponding to present-day India and Nepal. His teachings and philosophy originated in ancient India and have since had a profound influence on various cultures and countries worldwide, including China. What did Buddha say before he died? Before he died, Buddha is said to have given his final teachings to his disciples. His last words, as recorded in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, were: “All conditioned things are subject to decay. Strive on with diligence.” Mahāparinibbāna Sutta In Pali, the original language of many early Buddhist texts, this is: “Vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā.” These words emphasize the impermanence of all things and encourage his followers to continue their practice with earnest effort and mindfulness. Why is Buddhism no longer practiced in India? While Buddhism originated in India and has had a profound influence on the country’s culture and history, its practice declined over the centuries due to various factors such as the resurgence of Hinduism, invasions, and the spread of Islam. However, it is important to note that Buddhism is still practiced in India and remains a significant part of its spiritual and cultural landscape. India is home to many ancient Buddhist sites, such as Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Nalanda, which attract pilgrims and tourists from around the world. The Government of India has been actively promoting these sites through initiatives like the Buddha Circuit, aimed at reviving and preserving India’s rich Buddhist heritage. Moreover, the philosophical ideas shared by Buddha continue to resonate with many Indians. The teachings of Tibetan Buddhism, as promulgated by the Dalai Lama, are also influential and relevant in contemporary Indian society. The principles of compassion, mindfulness, and non-violence taught by Buddha are still deeply embedded in the daily lives of many Indians. In summary, while the number of practicing Buddhists in India may not be as large as in some other countries, Buddhism’s legacy and teachings remain a vital and respected part of India’s cultural and spiritual fabric. Who brought Buddhism to India? Buddhism originated in India, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, around the 5th to 4th century BCE. Therefore, it was not “brought” to India but rather emerged from within the Indian subcontinent itself. The Buddha’s teachings spread throughout India during his lifetime and continued to flourish after his death, with significant contributions from his disciples and later followers. Prominent Indian rulers, such as Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism across India and beyond. Ashoka, who ruled in the 3rd century BCE, converted to Buddhism and vigorously promoted the teachings of the Buddha through edicts, stupas, and missionary efforts, both within his empire and in neighboring regions.

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What is Neo Buddhism?

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Neo Buddhism, also known as Ambedkarite Buddhism or Navayana Buddhism, is a modern reinterpretation and adaptation of traditional Buddhist teachings. This movement was founded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in the mid-20th century as a means to combat social inequality and discrimination, particularly against Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”) in India. Ambedkar’s vision for Neo Buddhism was not just a religious transformation but also a social revolution aimed at uplifting marginalized communities. Who Founded Neo Buddhism? Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, a prominent Indian jurist, economist, and social reformer, is the founder of Neo Buddhism. Born into a Dalit family, Ambedkar experienced firsthand the severe discrimination and social exclusion faced by his community. Despite these challenges, he became a leading figure in the fight against caste oppression and was instrumental in drafting the Indian Constitution. Disillusioned with the social injustices perpetuated by the caste system within Hinduism, Ambedkar converted to Buddhism in 1956, along with hundreds of thousands of his followers, marking the beginning of the Neo Buddhist movement. How is Neo Buddhism Performing in India? Since its inception, Neo Buddhism has gained a significant following in India. The movement has inspired numerous conversions and has led to the establishment of various Buddhist institutions, educational centers, and social organizations. Neo Buddhism has also played a crucial role in the resurgence of Buddhist culture and heritage in India. Despite the growth the Neo Buddhism’s growth is retarding now. The Impact of Neo Buddhism on Indian Society Though Neo Buddhism as a movement has faced its share of challenges, its impact on Indian society has been profound and lasting. Ambedkar’s reinterpretation of Buddhism provided a powerful framework for addressing social inequalities and fostering a sense of dignity and self-worth among Dalits. The principles of Neo Buddhism have influenced various aspects of Indian society, including: Dr. Ambedkar’s Vision and Modifications Ambedkar’s reinterpretation of Buddhism addressed several limitations he identified within traditional Buddhist teachings. He questioned the legend of the Buddha’s isolation, the causes of suffering, the concepts of karma and rebirth, and the role of ordained practitioners. Ambedkar proposed a radical re-interpretation of nirvana, emphasizing its attainment through societal peace and justice rather than individual enlightenment. His vision of Navayāna Buddhism prioritized education, social activism, and community engagement as essential components of spiritual practice. Dr. Ambedkar’s Challenge to Traditional Buddhism Ambedkar’s approach challenges conventional notions of Buddhist practice, advocating for a more engaged and socially conscious form of Buddhism. He viewed Buddhism as a dynamic and evolving tradition that must adapt to address contemporary issues of injustice and inequality. Rather than retreating from the world, Ambedkar urged his followers to actively participate in social reform, education, and advocacy for marginalized communities. His teachings continue to inspire millions of individuals, embodying the spirit of compassion, activism, and social justice. Conclusion Neo Buddhism, founded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, has made significant strides in transforming the social landscape of India. By addressing the deep-rooted issues of caste discrimination and advocating for social justice, equality, and empowerment, the movement has left an indelible mark on Indian society. Despite challenges, Neo Buddhism continues to inspire and drive positive change, embodying the timeless values of compassion, wisdom, and human dignity that are central to Buddhist teachings.

The Enigmatic Saga of Panchen Lama

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In the vast tapestry of Tibetan Buddhism, the figure of the Panchen Lama emerges as a beacon of spiritual guidance and authority, second only to the revered Dalai Lama within the Gelug tradition. The Panchen Lama, a tulku of the Gelug school, wields immense influence, not only in matters of spirituality but also in the intricate politics of Tibetan Buddhism. Yet, the journey of the Panchen Lama is marked by a blend of reverence and controversy, with his lineage intertwined with tales of recognition, power struggles, and the tragic disappearance of one of its youngest incumbents. The title “Panchen” itself, a fusion of Pandita and Chenpo, resonates with profound significance, signifying “great scholar.” This honorific title finds its roots in the early 17th century when Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, the tutor of the fifth Dalai Lama, was anointed as the first Panchen Bogd by Altan Khan and the Dalai Lama in 1645. The subsequent lineage of Panchen Lamas, including luminaries like Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, Sönam Choklang, and Ensapa Lobsang Döndrup, further enriched the legacy of this revered position. The imperial patronage of the Qing dynasty solidified the stature of the Panchen Lama, with the Kangxi Emperor conferring the title Panchen Erdeni upon the fifth Panchen Lama in 1713. Subsequent imperial decrees, such as the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet issued by the Qianlong Emperor in 1792, underscored the pivotal role of the Panchen Lama in the governance and spiritual affairs of Tibet. Traditionally, the Panchen Lama holds sway over the Tashilhunpo Monastery and exerts both religious and secular authority over the Tsang region, centered in Shigatse. This domain of influence operates independently of the Ganden Podrang authority led by the Dalai Lama, showcasing the intricate balance of power within Tibetan Buddhism. The relationship between the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama is not merely hierarchical but deeply intertwined with the process of recognizing each other’s reincarnations, reflecting a symbiotic spiritual bond. However, this bond was shattered by the events surrounding the recognition of the 11th Panchen Lama, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima. In a poignant turn of events, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was recognized by the 14th Dalai Lama on May 14, 1995, as the 11th Panchen Lama. However, this joyous occasion was eclipsed by tragedy when, three days later, the six-year-old Panchen Lama was abruptly kidnapped by the Chinese government, plunging Tibetan Buddhism into turmoil. The Chinese authorities, in a move widely condemned by Buddhists worldwide, installed Gyaincain Norbu as the 11th Panchen Lama, a decision met with skepticism and rejection. Since his abduction, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima has remained shrouded in mystery, with his whereabouts unknown and his fate uncertain. Calls for his release and appeals for transparency from governments and Buddhist communities have echoed across the globe, yet the silence persists, casting a long shadow over the legacy of the Panchen Lama. In conclusion, the saga of the Panchen Lama encapsulates the complexities of Tibetan Buddhism, blending spiritual reverence with political intrigue and human tragedy. As the search for truth and justice continues, the story of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima serves as a poignant reminder of the enduring struggle for spiritual freedom and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

A Portrait of His Holiness the Dalai Lama 14th – The Advocate of the Nalanda and Ancient Indian Tradition

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By Nhan Vo, Researcher on Nalanda and HH Dalai Lama Introduction His Holiness the Dalai Lama 14th (HHDL) stands as a major figure in the 20th-21st century. His unique life journey includes leadership of the Tibetan nation, patriarch of the Gelugpa Buddhist lineage, Nobel Peace Prize winner (1989), erudite Buddhist monk, and author of numerous bestselling books. This article explores specific aspects of HHDL’s life, focusing on his commitment to the Nalanda tradition and ancient Indian values. 1. Pursuit of Nalanda Tradition and India’s Ancient Values in His Four Commitments HHDL’s four commitments, detailed on his website, encompass devotion to universal happiness, harmony among religions, preservation of Tibetan culture, and a distinct commitment to the Nālandā tradition. His dedication to preserving Tibetan heritage, rooted in Nālandā teachings, positions him as an integral part of this ancient tradition. Furthermore, his last commitment underscores his mission to integrate ancient Indian knowledge into modern values. HHDL emphasizes the relevance of ancient Indian understanding, especially in the realms of the mind, emotions, and techniques like meditation. He envisions a synthesis of ancient and modern knowledge, fostering a more integrated and ethically grounded society. 2. Efforts to Connect Wisdom Between Buddhism and Science HHDL’s engagement with science, highlighted in works like “The Universe in a Single Atom” and the “Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics” series, showcases his interest in bridging Buddhism and science. Recognizing similarities in their approach to understanding reality, he sees science as a valuable tool for exploring the material world. His proactive involvement in dialogues, conferences, and collaborations with scientists reflects a commitment to mutual learning. HHDL aims not to unify science and Buddhism but to interrogate both, fostering a comprehensive understanding of the world. His assertion, “Buddhism is the Science of the Mind,” exemplifies his belief in the complementarity of the two disciplines. 3. Presentation and Classification of Buddhism Foundations Corresponding to Modern Constructs In connecting Buddhism with science, HHDL introduces a novel approach to presenting Buddhist teachings. Three subclasses, covering Buddhist science, philosophy, and beliefs, provide a modern scientific presentation of traditional Tripitaka content. This innovative method aims to facilitate a more accessible and non-intrusive approach for modern scientists and educators. 4. Promoting the Rebuilding of the Nalanda Lineage Through Spiritual and Moral Education HHDL actively contributes to the revival of the Nalanda lineage, particularly in India. His commitment to incorporating ancient Indian knowledge into modern education is evident in various initiatives, including becoming the Dean of the Faculty of Nalanda Studies at Goa University and establishing the Institute of Nalanda Ancient Studies in Bodhgaya. His emphasis on training the mind and reducing destructive emotions aligns with his belief in India’s potential to combine ancient psychology with modern education. Collaborations with Indian educational institutions and advocacy for programs in psychology, ethics, and philosophy reflect his dedication to this cause. 5. Conclusion His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s multifaceted contributions, from preserving Tibetan heritage to connecting Buddhism with science and promoting Nalanda’s revival, paint a portrait of a visionary leader. His commitment to integrating ancient wisdom into contemporary values reflects a profound understanding of the evolving human experience. References: Original Article

Manjusri, 1 of the most Prolific BODHISATTVA of Zen

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Mahayana Buddhism expounds that all beings are potential Buddhas and Bodhisattva. In the Zen school, which is a branch of the Mahayana, adherents strive to realize Buddhahood or live as a Bodhisattva in this lifetime as Zen claims to be both the historical descendent school of Venerable Sakyamuni Buddha and vehicle to Prajna Wisdom in this lifetime, freeing the devotee of Zen from ignorance. Therefore, Manjusri Bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, may be seen as a tutelary example of how Zen Buddhists should strive in their training to open the Dharma’s eye. In the West, Zen is often portrayed as people in black sitting doing zazen in white rooms and not much more. Often in the West, Zen Buddhism is portrayed in the popular as an Eastern form of Stoicism, which it shares near principles with. Or it is sometimes imagined as a Protestant Buddhism’, simple and without symbolism. Thousands of books are now in publication in Western Countries in English, French, German and other languages, and it’s been estimated in the United States that more than 60% of Buddhists are practising Zen, but this is not the complete picture of Zen Buddhism. Undoubtedly, this has contributed to the spread of Zen Buddhism in the West, and how this came about is a complex of causes derived in part from the background of Westerners who travelled to Asian countries like Japan and Korea and then returned to their countries. A prime example of this is the famous book Zen and Archery by Eugen Herrigel, published in the 1930s, which laid considerable groundwork for the idealized expectations of Europeans. Zen and the Art of Archery, like many books like it, only told the partial practice of Zen Buddhism, perhaps because lay authors like Herrigel did not have time to delve deeply while they stayed in Asia or because they filtered what they wanted. Many early Zen people in the West were from secular Protestant Christian backgrounds and little interested in ritual and legend. When Asian teachers arrived in Western countries, they, too, were faced with predominantly lay students who were equally disinterested in anything they deemed superfluous to Zen. Of course, the nature of Zen is to emphasise reductive simplicity to get to the Fundamental point of things, to emphasise ‘Prajna’ insight. And this continues even today in Western Zen centres. This, in contrast to the next largest lineage of Buddhism, is Vajrayana, or ‘Tibetan’ Buddhism as it’s colloquially often referred to in the West. We associate Vajrayana Buddhism in the popular consciousness with Bodhisattva, Guardians and Devas, and subsequent rituals to invoke the superstitious power of such beings to help and guide. However, ritual is not limited to the Vajrayana lineages and is found in Zen Buddhism as well. Zen Buddhism is part of the Mahayana movement, which can be described as a federation of lineages that spread out of India. Zen is traditionally considered to have arrived in China around the 7th Century C.E., making it a historical latecomer to the Chinese Buddhist dysphoria. Zen Buddhism is an outlier in the Mahayana movement, having strong characteristics that would be more likely to be matched with Theravada Buddhism that spread to and survived in Southern India as part of Southern Buddhism. Zen and Theravada lineages, for the most part, put emphasis on meditation, Vipasanna for Theravada, and Dyanna, a method of meditation derived from Samatha and Vipasanna, and critical scriptural studies and dialogues. However, Theravada spread further south, eventually into what are now Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, and Laos predominately, while Zen Buddhism spread into China [1]. As a Mahayana school, Zen, therefore, inherited the Legendary traditions of Mahayana while still adhering to historicity and rationalism. Hence, in the Zen school, Venerable Sakyamuni is the ‘Historical Buddha’ while not denying his previous births. The historical Buddha remained paramount in Zen, with Venerable Mahakashyapa as the first Indian Ancestor and Zen revering 26 subsequent Indian Ancestors, including Venerable Nargajuna. The lineage of Zen is another deep subject, however, only touched on here. As part of the Mahayana, Zen inherited the teaching that multiple births led to the birth of Venerable Sakyamuni, his teaching and his Parinirvana supported by the various guardians, Bodhisattva, Devas, generals messengers and others. In China, the Sacred Mountain of Wu-tai, historically associated with the golden age of Zen Buddhism, is considered the mythic earthly home of Manjusri Bodhisattva. Manjusri In Art In Buddharupa images, the Bodhisattva Manjusri is depicted with a sword in their right hand, typically to cut the bonds of ignorance away, representing Wisdom and freedom or sometimes a White Lotus representing the purity of the teachings. Manjusri Bodhisattva may appear in Indian or Chinese forms, resembling other Bodhisattvas. Additionally, in Chinese and subsequent Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese lineages of Zen and Mahayana Art, as riding a Celestial dog or, less commonly, an elephant as in the original Indian depiction. The Celestial Animal represents the Cannon of the Teachings, the Tripitaka. Manjusri Buddha rupa are traditionally sculpted in stone, bronze or wood; stone Buddharupa typically will be set in the temple’s precinct, while wooden and bronze are set in the Buddha Hall. Line and coloured paintings are also made on paper or on wood panels. In paintings, associations with Manjusri Bodhisattva not only take the form of illustrating the Bodhisattva but also the aforementioned Wu-tai mountain and scenes from the sutras depicting the Layman Vimalakirti and others as he debates with the Bodhisattva. Famous and easily seen examples of statuary Buddharupa in the Rinzai Zen school are the Great Buddha Halls or Dai Hondo at Kenninji, Tofukuji and Nanzenji in Kyoto, Japan, where you will find large wooden Buddharupa settings. In Practice In Zen temples, the Bodhisattva Manjusri is often enshrined in the main hall of the Buddhas and Bodhisattva, where commemorative rituals are carried out. Usually in a grouping called Shaka sanzon, opposite the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (O-Fugen-sama), the Bodhisattva of training. Another type of grouping found in some Buddha halls is the Four…

The Pali Canon

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According to tradition, the text of the Pali Canon was settled at a Council held at Rajagaha immediately after the Teacher’s passing, having been memorised by leading Elders, who were highly realised practitioners of the Dhamma. It is clear that the collection as we have it originated over a more extended period. The Canon was preserved in oral form until the first century B.C., when it became apparent that the sacred texts might vanish from the earth if not recorded in writing. They were accordingly written down under King Vattaghani in Sri Lanka, though some portions may already have been committed to writing earlier. The feat of memory in preserving such an extensive body of text orally for so long may seem extraordinary to us, but it was pretty usual in ancient India. Writing was certainly known in India in the Buddha’s time but was not used for such purposes. It must, however, be remembered that in the course of forty-five years, the Buddha preached, doubtless often in a standardised form to many thousands of people and that most of the monks and nuns had trained minds and memories and will have known full well the meaning of what they were repeating. From the time of the Second Council, held at Vesdi one century after the Buddha’s passing, we hear of divisions and the formation of sects within the Order. This led eventually to the rise of the Mahayana schools. An up-to-date account of these developments can be found in A.K. Warder’s Indian Buddhism. Here, we need merely note that the Theravada type of Buddhism was carried early to Ceylon and later to Burma, Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia, whereas the forms of Buddhism that spread to Tibet, China, Japan and other more northern regions were of the developed, Mahayana type. Portions of the early scriptures of some of the schools that arose have been preserved in Sanskrit or, very often, in Chinese and/or Tibetan translations. THE PALI LANGUAGE Strictly speaking, the word Piti means ‘text’. But the expression Palibhasa, meaning ‘language of the texts’, was early taken to be the name of the language itself. Its use is confined to Buddhist subjects only in the Theravada school. Its exact origins are the subject of learned debate. While we cannot go too deeply into the matter here, it may be said that the traditional equation with the language of the ancient kingdom of Magadha and the assertion that Pali is, literally and precisely, the language spoken by the Buddha himself cannot be sustained. All the same, the language the Buddha said was, in all probability, not very different from Pali. From the point of view of the non-specialist, we can think of Pali as a kind of simplified Sanskrit. Its development, like that of other early Indian dialects, can be thought of as similar to an early form of Italian just breaking away from Latin. A close parallel is found in the word for ‘seven’, where Latin septem has become Italian sette, the pt being simplified by assimilation. The Sanskrit equivalent sapta is in Pali satta, and similar types of simplification are found in hundreds of words. The grammar, too, has been slightly simplified, though not nearly so much as that of Italian. But the two languages are still so close that it is possible to convert whole passages of Sanskrit into Pali simply by making the necessary mechanical transposition. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE PALI CANON Indeed, not all parts of the Pali Canon are equally old or can be taken to be the Buddha’s precise words. This is plain common sense and does not mean altogether rejecting their authenticity. Recent research has gone far to vindicate the claim that the Pali Canon holds at least a prime place among our sources in the search for ‘original’ Buddhism, or, in fact, ‘what the Buddha taught’. No attempt can be made here to go into any detail concerning questions of authenticity or the chronological stratification of the materials found in the Digha Nikaya. Some indications of scholarly opinion on this subject can be found, mainly in Pande’s Studies in the Origins of Buddhism (1967), though not all his findings are equally acceptable. Almost all doctrinal statements put directly into the mouth of the Buddha can be accepted as authentic, and this seems to be the most crucial point. THE DIVISIONS OF THE PALI CANON The Pali Canon is divided into three main sections (Tipitaka: the Three Baskets): I. Vinaya Pitaka This deals with monastic discipline for monks and nuns. 2. Sutta Pitaka The ‘Discourses’ (Suttas): the portion of the Canon of most interest to lay Buddhists (see below). 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka The ‘further doctrine’ is a highly schematised philosophical compendium of seven books. The Nikayas in Sutta Pitaka There are five nikayas (collections) of suttas: Digha Nikāya This includes The Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness, The Fruits of the Contemplative Life, and The Buddha’s Last Days. There are 34 long suttas in this Nikaya. Majjhima Nikāya This includes Shorter Exposition of Kamma, Mindfulness of Breathing, and Mindfulness of the Body. There are 152 medium-length suttas in this nikaya. Samyutta Nikaya According to one reckoning, there are 2,889, but according to the commentary, 7,762, shorter suttas in this Nikaya. Anguttara Nikāya These teachings are arranged numerically. According to the commentary’s reckoning, it includes 9,565 short suttas grouped by number from ones to elevens. According to Keown, “there is considerable disparity between the Pāli and the Sarvāstivādin versions, with more than two-thirds of the sūtras found in one but not the other compilation, which suggests that much of this portion of the Sūtra Piṭaka was not formed until a fairly late date.” Khuddaka Nikāya This heterogeneous mix of sermons, doctrines, and poetry is attributed to the Buddha and his disciples. The contents vary somewhat between editions. Importance of Pali Canon After two and a half millennia and six major rehearsals, the Pali Canon of Buddhism has been recognised as the oldest, most original, most complete, and most accurate…

Nalanda University: Unraveling the Legacy of Ancient Wisdom and Scholarly Excellence

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(An insightful conversation with Nhan Vo, Researcher on Nalanda) Research Journey This is a long and not easy question, and it contains 3 points: My motivation, what causes the interest, and the main objectives.Since the question is related to many causes & conditions and the events that crossed my life in the past, I will try to describe it in the simplest way possible. I was born in a Vietnamese Buddhist family and grew up with a strong background in Math and Computer Science. So, when any new concept appears clearly in my mind, the attitude of doubting and questioning if it is true comes naturally. I first learned the term “Nalanda” when I attended the teaching of His Holiness the Dalai Lama in California (2006). At that time, the title Nālandā just arose in my mind. It came up with one irritating and critical question: Why am I a Buddhist for life, but still not knowing well about this “Nālandā”? As time passed, I learned that many great Mahayana Masters also lived and worked there; specifically, one of them is my favourite Master, Xuanzang (玄奘). A few years later, even with so much information I could collect/learn about the institute, my wonder about it did not decrease at all. However, the final decision for full engagement in research about Nālandā only came after a very vivid and sad dream (circa 2011-12). In a vivid dream, after coming back to Nālandā with a much younger religious brother from an errant duty after a few months. I saw Nālandā getting destroyed, and I was very frightened. All things that I know of were burnt to black; the remains are broken bricks and walls with a bad smell. I cried as a kid who lost his mom. The feeling was so natural and strong as I was there; the image in the dream was so alive that even after waking up from that night, and many times later when thinking about what I saw in the dream, I continued to cry and feel as if the event just happened. So this is the final trigger that pushed me to eventually stop my worldly job as a scientist and go to India for 5 years to learn the truth about Nālandā and also to understand deeper about the Buddhist tradition. For easy saying, the objectives of my research are: a. To resolve my quest about Nālandā, including the dream. b. As stated, not only myself but also many other Buddhists, specifically the Vietnamese, do not know what Nālandā is. So, it seems a big mistake if you earnestly learn Buddhism but don’t really know its true history or where the teachings that you currently learn and practice come from and how they were transferred to you. c. As same as all Buddhists, my goal in life is to see all sentient beings get their true happiness. So if my work may contribute some productive information or facts, which can help Buddhist students to know how authentic and how valuable the teachings that they are following are, then this is a cause for my happiness as well as the graceful appreciation for the schools, the traditions, and the places that have hosted the Dharma teachings for thousands of years also. Lastly: How do we define the “Nālandā” term? To me, it is not just the monastery itself since doing so will narrow down the most important factor that Nālandā was the main Buddhist philosophy centre in India particularly, and the largest philosophy centre in the world generally. Not only religious, but it is also the centre of logic school, art, and architecture. We may find that His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s 14th was fully true: Tibetan Buddhist tradition is Nālandā tradition (not more, not less). Chinese Buddhist tradition and some other Mahayana countries also are a kind of following Nālandā even though they may become self-transforming later. But at least at the time upto Xuanzang (玄奘) and Yijing (義淨) time, it fully adopted the Nālandā tradition. The scope of these essays is not to find the absolute facts about what happened over a long period of thousand years ago but to find a clearer picture of the place named as Nālandā and its role within Buddhism, especially Mahayana and its tantric subschools. It also tries as much as it can to indicate the earliest source of fact that can be found through scriptures, writings, and the evidence of archaeology. With all the above mentioned, the presentation of the essays contains two kinds of information :(1) The facts, including the creation, rise, and destruction of Nālandā, its activities, depicting how people live, learn, and practice, and lastly, the philosophy, the teachings, and the paths.(2) The information that is exposed in many other aspects about Nālalndā, but they are implied within stories or legendaries. Those are very important since they may indicate and be the imprint to show details that are the actual image of Nālandā. Research Methodology 2. We understand that your research involved extensive data collection from Tibetan, Indian, and Chinese scriptures, as well as archaeological evidence. Could you shed light on the research methods you employed, the challenges you faced, and how you ensured the accuracy and reliability of the gathered information? Following Buddha’s teachings, there should be reliable sources of valid cognition for the proper knowledge: Direct Sense, Inference by suitable logic/critical thinking, and the knowledge taught by reliable persons (such as Buddha himself and his excellent Bodhisattvas). So, pick this as a guideline; my strategy goes with three stages: Collect data, filter them, and select what to present. But where is a good and reliable source for collecting data in the regard of more than thousands of years of history? a. So, the first sources and facts are the archaeology evidence which may come from: the Nālandā area itself, any other related archaeology evidence that is tightly related to Nālandā (such as Vikramasila Monastery) and any other facts found directly mentioned or refer to Nālandaā and its tradition. Those…

History and Present Splendor of Buddhist Arts

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Introduction Buddhism, a profound spiritual tradition that originated in ancient India, has gifted the world with a treasure trove of mesmerizing arts. From awe-inspiring stupas and sculptures to intricate paintings and manuscripts, the artistic heritage of Buddhism in India continues to captivate the hearts of enthusiasts and scholars alike. In this article, we embark on a journey through time, exploring the evolution and present status of these artistic wonders that celebrate India’s cultural and spiritual legacy. Unraveling the Majesty of Buddhist Architecture Buddhist architecture stands as a testament to the creativity and devotion of ancient artisans. The Great Stupa at Sanchi, an iconic masterpiece dating back to the 3rd century BCE, majestically rises on the Indian landscape, enshrining sacred relics of the Buddha. The viharas, ancient monastic complexes that once echoed with meditative chants, bear witness to the profound impact of Buddhism on India’s architectural heritage. These architectural marvels, impeccably preserved by the Indian government, draw pilgrims and travelers seeking spiritual enlightenment and architectural wonders. Carved in Stone: The Allure of Buddhist Sculptures Buddhist sculptures, carved in stone, wood, or metal, are a sight to behold, exuding divine grace and serenity. The Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries CE) saw the zenith of this art form, as artisans masterfully depicted the Buddha in various postures and bodhisattvas in timeless poses. The Mathura and Gandhara schools of sculpture were instrumental in shaping the early Buddhist art scene in India. Museums and galleries in India now treasure these priceless sculptures, ensuring their preservation and accessibility for generations to come. The Mesmeric Buddhist Art of Caves Step into the enchanting realm of Buddhist paintings adorning the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage site. These awe-inspiring caves, hewn into the rock, display a rich tapestry of paintings and murals that narrate tales from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories. An exquisite blend of indigenous and foreign artistic styles, these ancient artworks provide a glimpse into India’s cultural confluence. The Indian government, supported by international organizations, meticulously conserves and restores these masterpieces, allowing art lovers to revel in their timeless splendor. Preserving Wisdom: Buddhist Literature and Manuscripts The wisdom of Buddhism is etched in ancient manuscripts, cherished in India for centuries. Pali and Sanskrit texts, adorned with intricate illustrations, contain the profound teachings of the Buddha and commentaries by esteemed scholars. The National Mission for Manuscripts in India diligently preserves and digitizes these invaluable manuscripts, making them accessible to scholars and enthusiasts worldwide. These literary gems serve as a bridge connecting contemporary minds to the wisdom of the past. Contemporary Buddhist Art in India Buddhist art continues to evolve in modern times, with Indian artists skillfully infusing traditional motifs with contemporary techniques. From innovative sculptures to captivating paintings, these creations draw inspiration from timeless Buddhist principles, promoting a sense of inner peace and harmony. Galleries and art festivals across India proudly showcase these artistic expressions, ushering in a renaissance of Buddhist art. Conclusion India’s Buddhist arts form a captivating tapestry that weaves spirituality, creativity, and cultural heritage into a harmonious whole. The majestic stupas, soul-stirring sculptures, and enchanting paintings stand as an ode to the profound influence of Buddhism on India’s artistic landscape. As the country diligently preserves and promotes this artistic heritage, it continues to inspire and enrich the world with the timeless beauty of Buddhist arts. Embarking on a journey through the past and present, we celebrate the enduring legacy of these masterpieces that bear witness to the eternal spirit of Buddhism in India.

A Journey Through the Diverse Forms of Buddhism

adminForum3 years ago3 years ago05 mins

Buddhism, one of the world’s major religions, emerged in ancient India and has since evolved into various forms, each with distinct teachings, practices, and beliefs. This article delves into the origins and development of the most prominent branches of Buddhism, exploring their historical contexts and doctrinal differences. Theravada Buddhism Theravada, also known as the “Doctrine of the Elders,” is considered the oldest surviving form of Buddhism. It traces its roots back to the First Buddhist Council, held around 483 BCE, shortly after the passing of Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha. This council, led by his senior disciples, compiled and preserved his teachings, known as the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the importance of individual enlightenment through meditation and adherence to the original teachings of the Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism Around the 1st century BCE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged as a reformist movement within the Buddhist community. The term “Mahayana” translates to the “Great Vehicle,” signifying its aspiration to offer salvation to a broader spectrum of individuals. This branch introduced the concept of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who postpone their own enlightenment to guide others towards liberation. The Mahayana scriptures, such as the Prajnaparamita Sutras and the Lotus Sutra, expanded the Buddhist canon beyond the Tripitaka. Vajrayana Buddhism Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism, originated in India during the 6th to 7th centuries CE. It represents an esoteric and mystical form of Buddhism, characterized by the use of mantras, mandalas, and rituals to attain enlightenment swiftly. Vajrayana incorporates elements from both Theravada and Mahayana while incorporating tantric practices aimed at achieving Buddhahood in one lifetime. Notable Vajrayana traditions include Tibetan Buddhism and Japanese Shingon Buddhism. Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism also known as Chan Buddhism, was developed during the 6th century CE. Its origins are often attributed to the Indian monk Bodhidharma, who traveled to China and laid the foundation for the Chan tradition. Zen emphasizes direct experiential insight and meditation (zazen) as a means to enlightenment. The practice of koans (riddles or paradoxical statements) challenges the practitioner’s logical mind, leading to a direct experience of truth beyond words and concepts. Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism, prevalent in East Asia, originated in India around the 2nd century CE and later developed into different schools, including Jodo Shinshu in Japan and Pure Land Buddhism in China. This form of Buddhism focuses on devotion to Amitabha Buddha and his Pure Land, a realm of enlightenment. By sincerely reciting the name of Amitabha (nembutsu), devotees aspire to be reborn in his Pure Land and attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Conclusion The development of Buddhism into various forms over the centuries reflects its adaptability and capacity to resonate with different cultural, philosophical, and spiritual perspectives. Each branch has its unique teachings and practices, catering to the diverse spiritual needs of individuals across different regions of Asia and beyond. Buddhism’s enduring legacy continues to inspire millions worldwide on their journey towards enlightenment and inner peace.