Category: History

According to tradition, the text of the Pali Canon was settled at a Council held at Rajagaha immediately after the Teacher’s passing, having been memorised by leading Elders, who were highly realised practitioners of the Dhamma. It is clear that the collection as we have it originated over a more extended period. The Canon was preserved in oral form until the first century B.C., when it became apparent that the sacred texts might vanish from the earth if not recorded in writing. They were accordingly written down under King Vattaghani in Sri Lanka, though some portions may already have been committed to writing earlier. The feat of memory in preserving such an extensive body of text orally for so long may seem extraordinary to us, but it was pretty usual in ancient India. Writing was certainly known in India in the Buddha’s time but was not used for such purposes. It must, however, be remembered that in the course of forty-five years, the Buddha preached, doubtless often in a standardised form to many thousands of people and that most of the monks and nuns had trained minds and memories and will have known full well the meaning of what they were repeating. From the time of the Second Council, held at Vesdi one century after the Buddha’s passing, we hear of divisions and the formation of sects within the Order. This led eventually to the rise of the Mahayana schools. An up-to-date account of these developments can be found in A.K. Warder’s Indian Buddhism. Here, we need merely note that the Theravada type of Buddhism was carried early to Ceylon and later to Burma, Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia, whereas the forms of Buddhism that spread to Tibet, China, Japan and other more northern regions were of the developed, Mahayana type. Portions of the early scriptures of some of the schools that arose have been preserved in Sanskrit or, very often, in Chinese and/or Tibetan translations. THE PALI LANGUAGE Strictly speaking, the word Piti means ‘text’. But the expression Palibhasa, meaning ‘language of the texts’, was early taken to be the name of the language itself. Its use is confined to Buddhist subjects only in the Theravada school. Its exact origins are the subject of learned debate. While we cannot go too deeply into the matter here, it may be said that the traditional equation with the language of the ancient kingdom of Magadha and the assertion that Pali is, literally and precisely, the language spoken by the Buddha himself cannot be sustained. All the same, the language the Buddha said was, in all probability, not very different from Pali. From the point of view of the non-specialist, we can think of Pali as a kind of simplified Sanskrit. Its development, like that of other early Indian dialects, can be thought of as similar to an early form of Italian just breaking away from Latin. A close parallel is found in the word for ‘seven’, where Latin septem has become Italian sette, the pt being simplified by assimilation. The Sanskrit equivalent sapta is in Pali satta, and similar types of simplification are found in hundreds of words. The grammar, too, has been slightly simplified, though not nearly so much as that of Italian. But the two languages are still so close that it is possible to convert whole passages of Sanskrit into Pali simply by making the necessary mechanical transposition. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE PALI CANON Indeed, not all parts of the Pali Canon are equally old or can be taken to be the Buddha’s precise words. This is plain common sense and does not mean altogether rejecting their authenticity. Recent research has gone far to vindicate the claim that the Pali Canon holds at least a prime place among our sources in the search for ‘original’ Buddhism, or, in fact, ‘what the Buddha taught’. No attempt can be made here to go into any detail concerning questions of authenticity or the chronological stratification of the materials found in the Digha Nikaya. Some indications of scholarly opinion on this subject can be found, mainly in Pande’s Studies in the Origins of Buddhism (1967), though not all his findings are equally acceptable. Almost all doctrinal statements put directly into the mouth of the Buddha can be accepted as authentic, and this seems to be the most crucial point. THE DIVISIONS OF THE PALI CANON The Pali Canon is divided into three main sections (Tipitaka: the Three Baskets): I. Vinaya Pitaka This deals with monastic discipline for monks and nuns. 2. Sutta Pitaka The ‘Discourses’ (Suttas): the portion of the Canon of most interest to lay Buddhists (see below). 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka The ‘further doctrine’ is a highly schematised philosophical compendium of seven books. The Nikayas in Sutta Pitaka There are five nikayas (collections) of suttas: Digha Nikāya This includes The Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness, The Fruits of the Contemplative Life, and The Buddha’s Last Days. There are 34 long suttas in this Nikaya. Majjhima Nikāya This includes Shorter Exposition of Kamma, Mindfulness of Breathing, and Mindfulness of the Body. There are 152 medium-length suttas in this nikaya. Samyutta Nikaya According to one reckoning, there are 2,889, but according to the commentary, 7,762, shorter suttas in this Nikaya. Anguttara Nikāya These teachings are arranged numerically. According to the commentary’s reckoning, it includes 9,565 short suttas grouped by number from ones to elevens. According to Keown, “there is considerable disparity between the Pāli and the Sarvāstivādin versions, with more than two-thirds of the sūtras found in one but not the other compilation, which suggests that much of this portion of the Sūtra Piṭaka was not formed until a fairly late date.” Khuddaka Nikāya This heterogeneous mix of sermons, doctrines, and poetry is attributed to the Buddha and his disciples. The contents vary somewhat between editions. Importance of Pali Canon After two and a half millennia and six major rehearsals, the Pali Canon of Buddhism has been recognised as the oldest, most original, most complete, and most accurate…

Introduction Buddhism, a profound spiritual tradition that originated in ancient India, has gifted the world with a treasure trove of mesmerizing arts. From awe-inspiring stupas and sculptures to intricate paintings and manuscripts, the artistic heritage of Buddhism in India continues to captivate the hearts of enthusiasts and scholars alike. In this article, we embark on a journey through time, exploring the evolution and present status of these artistic wonders that celebrate India’s cultural and spiritual legacy. Unraveling the Majesty of Buddhist Architecture Buddhist architecture stands as a testament to the creativity and devotion of ancient artisans. The Great Stupa at Sanchi, an iconic masterpiece dating back to the 3rd century BCE, majestically rises on the Indian landscape, enshrining sacred relics of the Buddha. The viharas, ancient monastic complexes that once echoed with meditative chants, bear witness to the profound impact of Buddhism on India’s architectural heritage. These architectural marvels, impeccably preserved by the Indian government, draw pilgrims and travelers seeking spiritual enlightenment and architectural wonders. Carved in Stone: The Allure of Buddhist Sculptures Buddhist sculptures, carved in stone, wood, or metal, are a sight to behold, exuding divine grace and serenity. The Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries CE) saw the zenith of this art form, as artisans masterfully depicted the Buddha in various postures and bodhisattvas in timeless poses. The Mathura and Gandhara schools of sculpture were instrumental in shaping the early Buddhist art scene in India. Museums and galleries in India now treasure these priceless sculptures, ensuring their preservation and accessibility for generations to come. The Mesmeric Buddhist Art of Caves Step into the enchanting realm of Buddhist paintings adorning the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage site. These awe-inspiring caves, hewn into the rock, display a rich tapestry of paintings and murals that narrate tales from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories. An exquisite blend of indigenous and foreign artistic styles, these ancient artworks provide a glimpse into India’s cultural confluence. The Indian government, supported by international organizations, meticulously conserves and restores these masterpieces, allowing art lovers to revel in their timeless splendor. Preserving Wisdom: Buddhist Literature and Manuscripts The wisdom of Buddhism is etched in ancient manuscripts, cherished in India for centuries. Pali and Sanskrit texts, adorned with intricate illustrations, contain the profound teachings of the Buddha and commentaries by esteemed scholars. The National Mission for Manuscripts in India diligently preserves and digitizes these invaluable manuscripts, making them accessible to scholars and enthusiasts worldwide. These literary gems serve as a bridge connecting contemporary minds to the wisdom of the past. Contemporary Buddhist Art in India Buddhist art continues to evolve in modern times, with Indian artists skillfully infusing traditional motifs with contemporary techniques. From innovative sculptures to captivating paintings, these creations draw inspiration from timeless Buddhist principles, promoting a sense of inner peace and harmony. Galleries and art festivals across India proudly showcase these artistic expressions, ushering in a renaissance of Buddhist art. Conclusion India’s Buddhist arts form a captivating tapestry that weaves spirituality, creativity, and cultural heritage into a harmonious whole. The majestic stupas, soul-stirring sculptures, and enchanting paintings stand as an ode to the profound influence of Buddhism on India’s artistic landscape. As the country diligently preserves and promotes this artistic heritage, it continues to inspire and enrich the world with the timeless beauty of Buddhist arts. Embarking on a journey through the past and present, we celebrate the enduring legacy of these masterpieces that bear witness to the eternal spirit of Buddhism in India.

Buddhism, one of the world’s major religions, emerged in ancient India and has since evolved into various forms, each with distinct teachings, practices, and beliefs. This article delves into the origins and development of the most prominent branches of Buddhism, exploring their historical contexts and doctrinal differences. Theravada Buddhism Theravada, also known as the “Doctrine of the Elders,” is considered the oldest surviving form of Buddhism. It traces its roots back to the First Buddhist Council, held around 483 BCE, shortly after the passing of Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha. This council, led by his senior disciples, compiled and preserved his teachings, known as the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the importance of individual enlightenment through meditation and adherence to the original teachings of the Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism Around the 1st century BCE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged as a reformist movement within the Buddhist community. The term “Mahayana” translates to the “Great Vehicle,” signifying its aspiration to offer salvation to a broader spectrum of individuals. This branch introduced the concept of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who postpone their own enlightenment to guide others towards liberation. The Mahayana scriptures, such as the Prajnaparamita Sutras and the Lotus Sutra, expanded the Buddhist canon beyond the Tripitaka. Vajrayana Buddhism Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism, originated in India during the 6th to 7th centuries CE. It represents an esoteric and mystical form of Buddhism, characterized by the use of mantras, mandalas, and rituals to attain enlightenment swiftly. Vajrayana incorporates elements from both Theravada and Mahayana while incorporating tantric practices aimed at achieving Buddhahood in one lifetime. Notable Vajrayana traditions include Tibetan Buddhism and Japanese Shingon Buddhism. Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism also known as Chan Buddhism, was developed during the 6th century CE. Its origins are often attributed to the Indian monk Bodhidharma, who traveled to China and laid the foundation for the Chan tradition. Zen emphasizes direct experiential insight and meditation (zazen) as a means to enlightenment. The practice of koans (riddles or paradoxical statements) challenges the practitioner’s logical mind, leading to a direct experience of truth beyond words and concepts. Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism, prevalent in East Asia, originated in India around the 2nd century CE and later developed into different schools, including Jodo Shinshu in Japan and Pure Land Buddhism in China. This form of Buddhism focuses on devotion to Amitabha Buddha and his Pure Land, a realm of enlightenment. By sincerely reciting the name of Amitabha (nembutsu), devotees aspire to be reborn in his Pure Land and attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Conclusion The development of Buddhism into various forms over the centuries reflects its adaptability and capacity to resonate with different cultural, philosophical, and spiritual perspectives. Each branch has its unique teachings and practices, catering to the diverse spiritual needs of individuals across different regions of Asia and beyond. Buddhism’s enduring legacy continues to inspire millions worldwide on their journey towards enlightenment and inner peace.