Category: History

Submitted by Dr. Nilza Wangmo India and Mongolia share warm and cordial bilateral relations with the year 2022 marking the 67th anniversary of diplomatic ties between India and Mongolia. The bilateral relationship was upgraded to a Strategic Partnership during the historic visit of Prime Minister in 2015. The 3 Ds – Democracy, Dharma and Development Partnership have emerged as the pillars of India Mongolia relationship. Historically, the two nations have connected through Buddhism that has developed, nurtured and promoted the friendship and spiritual bond. Buddhism came to Mongolia in three phases. The first phase began during the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka in third century BCE. Ashoka had extended his Buddhist influence northward all the way to the city of Khotan. Khotan was the westernmost region of Mongolia from where Buddhism gradually spread eastward to the Mongolian Gobi kingdoms along the Silk Route. In 1206 CE under the ruler Genghis Khan, a united Mongolian state of nomadic tribes was formed, and his successors controlled a vast empire that included much of China, Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. During this the second phase of Buddhism began when Genghis Khan’s grandson Emperor Kublai Khan adopted Tibetan Buddhism and promoted Tibetan Guru Chogyal Pakpa/ Phagpa lama (known to Mongols today as Pakpa Lama). An easy form of the Tibetan script for use in all territories took place under his rule. This script, known as the Pakyig, continued as the script of choice by the Mongol emperors who came thereafter, and was in common use in Mongol Buddhism. The Mongolian Khans of Yuan dynasty adopted Tibetan Buddhism over other religions and honoured Skya-pa lamas as their supreme religious instructor. The third phase referred as The Origins of Dharma in Mongolia, refers to the Yellow Hat School Movement that was inspired by the Third Dalai Lama’s travels in the Mongol regions from 1578 under the patronage of Altan Khan. Interestingly, the Dalai Lama was not known by the name “Dalai” at the time rather was known as Jey Tamchey Khyenpa, or “The Omniscient Master.” The Third carried the ordination name of Sonam Gyatso. When he arrived in Hohhot, the then southern capital of Mongolia, Altan Khan translated the “Gyatso” part of his name into Mongolian. Thus Gyatso became Dalai, and Jey Tamchey Khyenpa became “Dalai Lama Dorjechang.” With the collapse and split of the Mongol empire, northern Mongolia was colonized by Qing (Manchu) China from 1691 onwards. With the fall of the Qing in 1911, control of Mongolia lay in the hands of Bogd Gegeen (or Javzandamba) or Bogd Khan (Mongolia’s religious leader) but only autonomy under China’s suzerainty was achieved. He became the Head of State and declared Mongolia’s independence. He is ranked third in the ecclesiastical hierarchy after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, From 1919, nationalist revolutionaries, with Soviet assistance, drove out Chinese troops attempting to reoccupy Mongolia, and in 1921 they expelled the invading White Russian cavalry. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed in November 1924, and the Mongolian capital, centred on the main monastery of the Bogd Gegeen was renamed Ulaanbaatar (“Red Hero”). During the 1930s the ruling revolutionary party, which espoused atheism, destroyed or closed monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, induced large numbers of monks (lamas) to renounce religious life, and killed those who resisted. Robert Rupen reports that in the 1920s there were over 112,000 Mongolian Buddhist monks, representing more than 13% of Mongolia’s overall population. By the 1940s, nearly every monk was either dead or had apostatized. The end of one-party rule in 1990 allowed for the popular resurgence of Tibetan Buddhism, the rebuilding of ruined monasteries and temples, and the rebirth of the religious vocation. The contemporary phase of Buddhism in Mongolia that built strong ties between India and Mongolia was with the 19th Kushok Bakula Rinpoche, also known as Ngawang Lobzang Thupstan Chognor, a Buddhist Lama from Ladakh who was designated as Ambassador of India to Mongolia in 1990 until 2000. He was recognized by the 13th Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of Bakula Arhat, one of the 16 Arhats who, as per legend, were direct disciples of Gautama Buddha. During his stay in Mongolia he spread Buddha’s teaching extensively among the locals in Mongolia. During this period, Kushok Bakula also reinforced Buddhism in different autonomous Republics of Russia which are located close to the Mongolian border, such as Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva. In August 1993, under his initiative the Government of India brought the Holy Buddha Relics at National Museum in New Delhi to Ulaanbaatar for an exposition. A recipient of Padma Bhushan in 1988, the late Bakula Rinpoche remains the most prominent Buddhist leader in independent India. However, it was his contribution to the revival of Buddhism in Mongolia as an Indian diplomat following the collapse of the Soviet Union that genuinely stands out. President of Mongolia P. Ochirbat (1992-97) stated, “Bakula Rinpoche was indeed a statesman, a diplomat and a Buddhist clergy who carved out his niche in the history of Mongolia. Ambassador Rinpoche had recognized the historical necessity of developing Mongolia’s national culture to restore the glory of Buddhism, an inseparable part of its cultural heritage”. On the auspicious occasion of the Buddha Purnima being observed in Mongolia on 14 June 2022, an 11-day exposition of the sacred Buddha Relics (Piprahwa relics) for the second time will take place in Mongolia. A  25-member delegation led by Indian Union Minister for Law and Justice, Shri Kiren Rijiju will take the Holy Buddha Relics will leave for Mongolia by a special Indian Air Force Aircraft. The Holy Buddha Relics will be displayed at the Batsagaan Temple within the premises of the Ganden Monastery.  Today, Buddhism has been promoted by cultural and literary contacts between the people of India and Mongolia. This long-standing friendship between the two nations grounded on the teachings of the Buddha will grow stronger into the future.

Introduction The “aṭṭhakathā” is an exegetical work on Pali Canonical texts. In Sanskrit literature, the same feature is called “bhāṣya”. Its aim is to elaborate the meanings of the Buddhist teachings in the Canon. There were two reasons for the compilation of commentaries on the Pali text. The first of these, as recorded in the Sutra, is that some of the teachings promulgated by the Buddha are incomprehensible. The second is the inconsistency related to people’s skill in understanding the Dhamma. As a result, commentaries were essential to assist in understanding the original teachings of Pali literature.The Pali language originated in Magadha with the name Magadhi (Magadha + e = Magadhi). Another dialect similar to Magadhi used by Jain Mahavira is Ardha Magadhi. At the time of the Buddha, the Pali language called Suddha Magadhi was called Pure Language (nomix with any other language). Also, King Ashoka used a language similar to Pali. According to the Samantapasadika Vinaya Atakatha (Commentary on Vinayapitaka), the Pali language came to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century AD with Mahamahinda Thero.Scholars have determined that this is the starting point where Pali was introduced to Sri Lanka. The development of Pali to international language standards can be described in two areas namely grammatical development and literary development. There are two grammar traditions introduced by Sri Lankan scholars namely Kachchayana and Moggallayana traditions. Mahakacchayana and Maharupasidhi were written for the Kachchayana tradition and Mahamoggallayana book for the Moggallayana tradition. These traditions were very helpful in the development of Pali language The Literal development is huge when we consider it. There are many books written in Pali language. They can be explained as canon, commentaries, sub-commentaries, anthologies or manuals, chronicles and various other literary works. Canonical literature is the name given to the Tripitaka texts. Commentary is an allegorical treatise that explains difficult points in canonical texts. There are many commentaries like Sumangalavilasini, Papanchasudani, Sarathappakasini, Manorathapurani etc. The Upa-Commentary is a confusing book that explained the difficult points of the commentaries, some of which are Vajirabuddhitika, Vimativinodhaneetika, etc. A handbook can be described as a concise, yet comprehensive collection of information on a subject, especially a book or other publication such as Abhidhammattasangha, Suttasangha, Namarupasamuchchaya etc. Annals can be described as a true written record of important historical events such as Mahavamsa, Deepavansa, Bodhivamsa etc. in the order in which they happened. The Rise of Pali in Sri Lanka & India The Pali language is evocative. It has a lyrical rhythm. In singing, Lalithya is sajjati in tone, and Karnarasayana raises the sound. The Pali language has been preserved in several Theravada Buddhist countries, especially when it is being recited by the monks so that the meaning is spiced up, and is kept alive by the Buddhist scholars, monks, and devotees. Thus, Pali has become the medium of Theravada Buddhism. When the Aryan-speaking peoples migrated to northern India around 2000 BC, they are thought to have brought many varieties of the language with them. In the course of time, some of these sub-languages developed unique literary forms along with grammar. Of these, the most important dialect was Sanskrit. Although Pali is widely accepted as an ancient language, no epigraphic or textual evidence survives from the early period. The earliest Pali samples discovered are inscriptions believed to date from the fifth to eighth centuries, and were found in mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in central Siam and Lower Burma. These inscriptions usually consist of short excerpts from the Pali canon and non-canonical texts, as well as multiple examples of Yedharma utati stanzas. Surprisingly, the oldest Pali text dating back to the 9th century was found in Nepal. It is in the shape of four palm leaves, including a part of chullavagga written in a transitional script derived from the Gupta script. The oldest manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date from the 13th to the 15th century, and only a few instances have survived. Very few manuscripts survive more than 400 years and complete copies of the four sects are known only in 17th and later century specimens. The Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, which emerged shortly after the Buddha’s parinirvana, began to use Sanskrit, the classical language of India, to propagate the Buddha’s teachings. After that, an alternative Sanskrit dialect called “Buddhist Sanskrit” came into use. In real time, Pali language also came to be known as the “Language of the Philosophy of Mankind”. This is because, before the emergence of the Western Enlightenment tradition, it was a vast literature on the subject of religion and the medium of expression of philosophical thought throughout the world. The Pali language is the medium in which the legend or Tripitaka on the teachings of Theravada Buddhism is presented. The legal system for the education of monks is presented in the Vinaya Pitaka, the main collection of Buddha’s teachings in the Sutra Pitaka, and the most profound psychological dharma mass in the Abhidharma Pitaka. It is also important to consider the spread of the Pali language which has been accelerated over time. As mutual commercial relations and message exchange strategies developed, the use of Pali language also spread as Buddhist monks and envoys proliferated throughout the respective geographical areas. As it was, Pali became the “universal language” of Buddhist countries in South and Southeast Asia for well over a thousand years. Later, each country developed its own Pali literature and history. The language incorporates regional variants, making it difficult to assign to a specific location. Like the Buddhists, the Jains deviated from Sanskrit and instead used Arthamagadhi to write their books. However, most Buddhist treatises in North India and South Asia, except for the peninsula, were written in Sanskrit in the second century. It is unclear what prompted the Buddhists to accept Sanskrit after half a millennium. Although Pali survived in other parts of the world until the eighteenth century, it died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century. Pali is now primarily learned…

By Dr. Nilza Wangmo nilzwang@gmail.com Bodh Gaya, located in the central province of Bihar State of India is one of the holiest sites for Buddhists all over the world where thousands of foreigners mostly Buddhist devotees throng each year. Under the sacred pipal, or Bodhi tree, Gautama Buddha (Prince Siddhartha) attained enlightenment and became the Buddha. It is believed to be the centre of the universe according to Buddhist some texts and the seat of enlightenment of all past and future Buddhas. In the 3rd century BCE, a simple shrine was built by the emperor Ashoka to mark the spot, and this was later enclosed by a stone railing in 1st century BCE, part of which still remains. Ashoka’s stone slab purporting to mark the exact position where the Buddha sat is traditionally called the Buddha’s Vajrasana (literally “diamond throne” or “thunder seat”). In the 2nd century CE, the shrine was replaced during the Kushan period by the present Mahabodhi temple which was itself refurbished in the Pala-Sena period (750–1200), heavily restored by the British archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham in the second half of the 19th century, and finally restored by Myanmar (Burmese) Buddhists in 1882.   The temple’s central tower stands 180 feet (54 metres) above the ground. Its pyramidal shikhara (tower) comprises several layers of niches, arch motifs, and fine engravings. Four towers, each identical to its central counterpart but smaller in size and topped with an umbrella-like dome, adorn the corners of the two-story structure. A shrine inside the temple holds a yellow sandstone statue of the Buddha encased in glass. One of the most famous of Ashoka’s many pillars (on which he had engraved his edicts and his understanding of religious doctrine) stands at the southeast corner of the temple. The 4.8-hectare (11.9-acre) complex also includes ancient shrines and modern structures built by Buddhist devotees. It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2002.   On 5th of September 2015, the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, in the midst of delegates from different Buddhist countries reiterated the relevance of this holy place saying, “We are meeting in Bodhgaya, a land that has a distinctive place in the history of humankind. This is the land of Enlightenment. Years ago what Bodhgaya got was Siddhartha but what Bodhgaya gave to the world was Lord Buddha: the epitome of knowledge, Peace and Compassion.”   Resonating the PM Modi’s thoughts, some of the firsthand accounts of the Asian Buddhists who took a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya write about their experiences at this holy site. A Korean nun Hyeran Lee who got her PhD degree in Buddhist Studies from the University of Delhi in 2016 and is currently a Lecturer at Dongguk University, Republic of Korea writes, “Bodhgaya is the place where I can feel the energy of the Buddha. I had become a Buddhist nun at the age of 20 in order to devote my life to pursue the Buddha’s teaching and dharma. I was very curious about India – the land of the Buddha. When I was in my mid-twenties, I visited India for the first time. I had always been curious about the land of the Buddha and had seen the pictures of Buddhist sacred places so many times and did not expect to visit Bodhgaya and the other Buddhist sacred sites in India. But when I actually made a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya, I realized that the pictures cannot express everything that a Holy place holds. The atmosphere of Bodhgaya was sacredly mysterious and the place was crowded with pilgrims from all parts of the world. There were many people making prostrations to the Buddha and around the Mahabodhi Temple. Bodhgaya is a religious site where the Buddha attained Enlightment under the Bodhi Tree. When I visited Bodhgaya again after 20 years, I felt the same feeling how I had felt during my first visit to Bodhgaya- I could feel the energy of the Buddha when he lived around 2600 years ago. I think that Buddhists and non-Buddhist can feel the Buddha’s power in Bodhgaya, as many come on a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya every time.”   Another nun scholar from Vietnam Li Thi Kim Lien who finished her Masters in Buddhist Studies from University of Delhi very sincerely expresses her moment of experience in Bodhgaya saying, “It was a great blessing for me to come and admire Bodh Gaya under the Bodhi tree, which all Buddhists called the land of enlightenment. When my foot entered the gate of the Great Stupa, occasionally listening to the chanting of the Pali sutras emanating from the loudspeakers, I felt an indescribable emotion in my heart- an atmosphere of sacredness, mystery, and majesty pervades Bodh Gaya. I respectfully folded my hands and saluted the Great Stupa facing me. As I started walking towards the steps leading to the Great Stupa, I felt there was an invisible power that affected my consciousness. It affected my every step. Every step I took was like an electric current being transmitted to my body, making my whole body vibrate strangely. A spiritual force at the place of Buddha’s enlightenment acted on my body and mind. At that time, I felt I am just a tiny human being before that spiritual power. It is strange that being under the influence of this spiritual power and the majesty of the Great Stupa, my heart felt peaceful and reverent, and I felt all me fears going away.”

Phuntsog Dolma (Ph. D) Millennia years ago the world witnessed the birth of a great teacher whose profound insight proved to be a source of light for the ignorant world. There were different opinions among the scholars regarding the period that Gautama Buddha lived. Some scholars believe that he was born in the year 623 B.C while some others regard his birth date from 563 to 483 B.C. Siddhartha Gautama was born to king Suddhodana and queen Mahamaya of Sakya clan in Lumbini grove located in present day Nepal. But just after a week of his birth queen Mahayamaya passed away and the young prince was looked after by Mahaprajapati Gautami who in relation happened to be the sister of queen Mahamaya. The Sakya clan belongs to the Kshatriya class who according to the Hindu varna system were born to be rulers, warriors and administrators. Therefore, when Prince Siddhartha was born his father like any other king wished his son to be his successor and look after the kingdom of Kapilavastu but to his dismay the young prince left the life of the householder and chose the path of renunciation at the later stage of his life. The Buddhist legends and Buddha’s biographies mention that at the time of his birth a prophesy was made which states that the young prince would either become a universal monarch (Chakravartin Raja) or a great seer who will be a torchbearer for the universe. In the text ‘2500 years of Buddhism’ by P.V Bapat it is mentioned that ‘A sage named Asita visited King Suddhodana’s palace and expressed his desire to see the child. After witnessing some unique auspicious marks on the child’s body Asita laughed and shed tears of sorrow. He laughed, he said, owing to his joy that a savior had come to the earth for the salvation of the people and shed tears because he would not have the good fortune to live long enough to see the achievements of the child.’ Hearing upon the prophesy, King Suddhodana got distressed and decided to restrict the young prince from the scenes of worldly sufferings and surrounded him with all kinds of materialistic luxuries. Subsequently, when prince Siddhartha attained the age of 16 he got married to his cousin Yasodhara who later gave birth to a baby boy whose name was Rahula. Though King Suddhodana put all his efforts in protecting the young prince’s mind from getting distracted towards the religious path but all his attempt went in vain when one day at the age of 29 the young prince seeing the suffering nature of all existence decided to renounce his luxurious princely life and follow the path of an ascetic. Buddhist historical texts and legends mention various reasons for prince Siddhartha’s renunciation the most popular ones are his encounter with the four passing sights that is old age, sickness, death and his encounter with a wandering ascetic. Other reason was the compassionate nature of the prince towards all sentient beings. As he grew up, the prince witnessed cases of partiality, inequality, corruption and events of wars being waged among the different kingdoms that resulted to the death of so many innocent people and such scene created a sense of remorse and discomfort in the Prince Siddharta’s mind. Therefore, these events of his life urged him to comprehend the truth of the world around him and consequently one day the young prince decided to renounce his princely life and set on his spiritual quest. Prince Siddhartha’s journey of renunciation began with seeking study of religious philosophies under renowned teachers like Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra. After going through an arduous austerity for six long years, finally on the full moon day of Vesak month, prince Siddhartha attained the state of Bodhi (Bodhi is a Sanskrit word which means Awakened or Enlightened one) under the Peepal tree which today is popularly known as Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya. Today, he is universally known as the Shakyamuni Buddha. Thereafter, he continued teaching his Dhamma among his disciples for 45 years until Mahaparinirvana (passing away). The profound path that he discovered was not only for one’s own liberation and happiness but is based on the welfare and happiness of all the sentient beings which in pali known as Bahujana-hitaya bahujana-sukhaya which in turn illustrates his philosophy of Dependent Origination. If we summarize the Shakyamuni Buddha’s philosophy in simpler words, then Shakyamuni Buddha in Dhammapada said   “Commit no evil; Engage as much in virtuous deeds; Subdue one’s mind thoroughly; This is the teaching of the Buddha.”